Literature Review on Emotions Across Cultures

Literature Review on Emotions Across Cultures Ms. Shweta Gaikwad RESEARCH METHODOLOGY OF EMOTIONS ACCROSS CULTURES (EMIC, ETIC OR A COMBINATION OF BOTH) Introduction: The terms emic and etic were coined in 1954, by linguist Kenneth Pike, who argued that the tools developed for describing linguistic behaviors could be adapted to the description of any human social behavior. Emic and Etic are terms used by anthropologists and by others in the social and behavioral sciences to refer to two kinds of data concerning human behavior. In particular, they are used in cultural anthropology to refer to kinds of fieldwork done and viewpoints obtained. In the field of cross-cultural research, the emic approach involves examining one culture at a time to evaluate how insiders or participants interpret a phenomenon. The criteria for evaluating behaviors relate to the insiders, and the structure is discovered by the researchers. On the other hand, the etic approach involves comparing different cultures. Behavior is studied from the perspective of an outsider, the criteria for evaluating behaviors are viewed as â€Å"universal† and the structure is created by the researchers. Definition: â€Å"The emic approach investigates how local people think (Kottak, 2006). How they perceive and categorize the world, their rules for behavior, what has meaning for them, and how they imagine and explain things.† The etic approach realizes that members of a culture often are too involved in what they are doing to interpret their cultures impartially â€Å"The etic (scientist-oriented) approach shifts the focus from local observations, categories, explanations, and interpretations to those of anthropologist.† When using the etic approach, the ethnographer emphasizes what he or she considers important. Early Etic and Epic studies in Psychology: Swiss psychoanalyst, Carl Jung, is a researcher who took an etic approach in his studies. Jung studied mythology, religion, ancient rituals, and dreams leading him to believe that there are archetypes used to categorize people’s behaviors. Archetypes are universal structures of the collective unconscious that refer to the inherent way people are predisposed to perceive and process information. The main archetypes that Jung studied were the persona (how people choose to present themselves to the world), the animus/ anima (part of people experiencing the world in viewing the opposite sex, that guides how they select their romantic partner), and the shadow (dark side of personalities because people have a concept of evil. Well-adjusted people must integrate both good and bad parts of themselves). Jung looked at the role of the mother and deduced that all people have mothers and see their mothers in a similar way; they offer nurture and comfort. His studies also suggest that †Å" infants have evolved to suck milk from the breast, it is also the case that all children have inborn tendencies to react in certain ways.† This way of looking at the mother is an etic way of applying a concept cross- culturally and universally. Recent Researches on Emic and Epic across Culture: I) West Meets East: Incorporating the Emic Perspective for Cross-cultural Business Communication by Yunxia Zhu, University of Queensland Business School The researcher has shed light on the rapid development of internationalization and globalization, cross-cultural business communication is drawing increasing research  attention. The researcher has reviewed and reported findings based on 177 journal papers, published after 1990, in various Journals of Business Communication. The researcher indicates that there has been a shift of research focus towards  Asia and other emerging economies with the rise of Asia and Latin America  (e.g., China, India, and Brazil) in the world economic arena. However, Many Scholars contemplate dominant approach of crosscultural communication and management is Still largely based on polarised cultural dimensions, (e.g., Individualism and collectivism). Hofstede’s (2001). The research highlights the issue relating to the imbalanced emic-etic focus and propose specific ways of addressing this imbalance, through the discussion on the following three points: Introduction of the concepts of emic and etic perspective, and discussion of the relevance to cross-cultural business communication. The sources of emic researches and suggest ways of incorporating them. The theoretical and practical implications of applying the emic perspective and suggest some future research directions. The researcher refers to Kenneth Pikes (1967) contribution and definition of the terms epic and ethic and concludes that the etic unit was from the outside in, providing access into the system but only as the starting point of analysis; the full understanding of the emic is the ultimate end point. However the researcher fails to mention the terms are coined priory by Pikes in 1954. According to the researcher the importance of the emic approach has drawn increasing research attention but it has not been given sufficient research attention in cross-cultural business communication. Also it is crucial to explore and incorporate The emic perspectives in order to reach a balanced view about the culture and communication in the new economic and cross-cultural contexts. The researcher has further discussed the Imposed Ethic approach, The Integrative Etic-Emic Approach and Emically Derived Etic Approach with relevance to various researches in the respective fields. There are enough evidences of researches In conclusion the expant research points to the imperative of incorporating the emic perspective in order to explore the nuances and richness of cultures. Whereas, the emic perspective is especially important today when the East meets the West. The study of incorporating emic perspectives has both theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, the emic can complement the etic approach, hence extending the prevalent etic approach. The researcher further suggests future study can examine how emic perspectives can extend other cultural dimensions. Also indicating that various theories can be viewed in the light of emic perspective to derive or facilitate culture studies. The limitation or overlapping of the theories is also pointed out that some imposed etic or prevalent Western theories are in fact emic in nature. Thus leading to the need to identify the limitations of these theories including tracing sources and contexts of these theories while applying them. The researcher states that the emic sources of knowledge also extend the etic approach, offering us a wider range of alternative perspectives from emic sources for cross-cultural adaptation. For example, we can be more flexible with communication styles with different group of people in different contexts. The researcher concludes with the conception that there is potential for developing new theories and for complementing extant theories drawing from emic sources, which will help to achieve significant impact and answer the ‘so what’ question for cross-cultural business communication research. II) Toward a new approach to the study of personality in culture. by  Cheung, Fanny M.; van de Vijver, Fons J. R.; Leong, Frederick T. L. The research reviews recent developments in the study of culture and personality measurement. Three approaches are described: an etic approach that focuses on establishing measurement equivalence in imported measures of personality, an emic (indigenous) approach that studies personality in specific cultures, and a combined emic–etic approach to personality. The research proposes the latter approach as a way of combining the methodological rigor of the etic approach and the cultural sensitivity of the emic approach. The combined approach is illustrated by two examples: the first with origins in Chinese culture and the second in South Africa. The article ends with a discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of the combined emic–etic approach for the study of culture and personality and for psychology as a science. III) Views From Inside and Outside: Integrating Emic and Etic Insights about Culture and Justice Judgment by Michael W. Morris, Stanford University Kwok Leung, Chinese University of Hong Kong; Daniel Ames, University of California at Berkeley and Brian Lickel, University of California at Santa Barbara. The research focuses on synergy between emic and etic approaches to research on culture and cognition. The research contemplates the integrative limitation as well as simulative progressive characteristics of emic and etic approaches to research. The research notes that the emic or inside perspective follows in the tradition of  psychological studies of folk beliefs (Wundt, 1888) and The etic or outside perspective  follows in the tradition of behaviourist psychology (Skinner, 1938).The two perspectives/approaches persists in contemporary scholarship, in psychology, between cultural psychologists (Shweder, 1991) and cross-cultural psychologists (Smith Bond, 1998). Varied views on emic and etic approaches, as facilitating and bringing limitations to one another as integrative, with context to anthropology, comparatives and psychology, are elaborated. Further contemplating that, emic and etic researchers tend to have differing assumptions about culture. Emic researchers tend to assume that a culture is best understood as an interconnected whole or system, whereas etic researchers are more likely to isolate particular components of culture and state hypotheses about their distinct antecedents and consequences. The researchers agree that there is differences in justice judgments made in East Asian cultural settings, as opposed to Western settings. The researchers examine selected results from the two key components of distributive justice perception: selecting principles and construing behavior. East Asian cultures have suggested that the principle of harmony is salient in Confucist cultural settings (Hsu, 1953). Whereas Western common sense and theory (Deutsch, 1985). Chinese respondents give more weight to group-oriented values than do North Americans (e.g., Singh,Huang, Thompson, 1962). Emic research has revealed novel constructs (e.g., generosity as a means to harmony), has challenged etic constructs (the notion that individuals adherence to individualist  and collectivist values is captured by a unitary dimension), and has suggested new solutions  (e.g., distinguishing types of ingroup relations). Insights concerning cultural influence on the  interpretation of behavior relevant to justice comes mostly from emic studies. Emic analysis of how culture shapes judgment of deservingness has gone furthest in studies of indigenous Chinese constructs. Although there can be no doubt that an employees social connections enter into appraisals in many Western settings, the role of an employees connections  in an evaluation of his or her worth generally is left implicit and unarticulated by Western observers. To summarize the researchers have described several forms of stimulation in which  developments within each research tradition are provoked and challenged by findings in the  other tradition. Moreover, researchers have argued that an integrative explanatory framework incorporating insights from both traditions avoids limitations of purely etic and purely emic findings in conceptualizing culture and in capturing its various influences on cognition. In conclusion , the researchers have argued that integrative frameworks have several advantages as guides to solving the applied problem of managing justice perceptions  in international organizations. That is, an integrative framework enables better anticipation  of employees justice sensitivities, better decision making about a firms policy options,  and, once a policy is chosen, better implementation. Conclusion The researches on etic and epic approaches suggest that use of integrative approach provides a better understanding of cross-cultural researches. The cultural differences in context to personality, organizational, communication and emotion studies can be broadly generalised if the integrative approach is used. The limitations of one approach are the advantage of the other. Many studies indicate that some emic studies include an epic approach. REFERENCES Cheung, F. M.; van de Vijver, Fons J. R.; Leong, Frederick T. L. (2011) Toward a new approach to the study of personality in culture. American Psychologist, Vol. 66(7), pp.593-603.  Retrived on 19th November 2013 from:  http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuyid=2011-01448-001 Emic and Etic Researches-concept  Retrieved on 19th November 2013 from:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emic_and_etic Friedman, Howard S; Schustack, Miriam W (2012), Personality: Classic Theories and Modern Research, Boston: Pearson Allyn Bacon. Kottak, Conrad (2006), Mirror for Humanity, New York, NY: McGraw Hill. Morris, M. W.; Leung, K.; Ames, D. and Lickel, B.( 1999).Views From Inside and Outside: Integrating Emic and Etic Insights about Culture and Justice Judgment.  Academy of Management Review, Vol. 24. No. 1781-796.

Bible teacher Essay

There are many opinions about the book of Hebrews and a variety of responses. In order to recognize these, three people were interviewed to understand their impressions and how they generally understood the message of the book. A Bible teacher, a non-believer, and a friend who professes to be a believer were interviewed and these were the results. Mr. Edward Shim is a Bible teacher and informs us that Hebrews is about â€Å"the calling of Jesus as man’s Savior†. That He is â€Å"the complete author and provider of our salvation from sin. † According to Mr. Shim, â€Å"it explains the Son of God as the fulfillment of the symbolic tabernacle ceremonial system given to the ancient Israelites. The shedding of blood for the atonement of sin on a daily basis is replaced by the once and for all shedding of Jesus’ blood so that all those who believe through faith may be saved. We enter His rest by accepting Jesus’ death as salvation for our sins. Hebrews continues to support Jesus’ death as the valid and legitimate answer to sins’ demand of death. It concludes by calling all who accept his salvation to walk uprightly in spiritual maturity and growth. † He believes that no man, not even the pope, preacher, parent, or anyone can mediate between a person and God but Jesus Christ alone and that Christ’s death has â€Å"cleansed away the enmity between God and man. † Mr. Brian Starlin, a non-believer, says that he is not really familiar with the Book of Hebrews. All he says is that â€Å"there were men through whom God communicated. † Some of which were Moses and Noah, while Jesus was one of the more recent mediators. He adds further that â€Å"Christ’s sacrifice inspired a lot of people; helped push Christianity across the globe and still helps push it; and has led a lot of people toward a more moral and balanced life. † To Mr. Starlin, Hebrews is â€Å"an inspiring story about an important individual from the past, and it has influenced a lot of family members and friends,† so he respects what Christ’s influence has accomplished. Ms. Mishell Pang, on the other hand, is a friend who professes to be a believer. She says that the general message of the book is â€Å"of how Jesus is the ultimate high priest and no one can come to God except through Him. † She goes on to say that â€Å"Christ’s death cleansed every one of their sins,† and that accepting Jesus as savior and mediator to God is accepting God’s grace and forgiveness. The Book of Hebrews was written primarily for Christians who are undergoing persecution and discouragement. Its writer strives to strengthen the faith of believers in Christ by carefully explaining the superiority and finality of God’s revelation and redemption in Jesus Christ. He shows that God’s redemptive provisions under the old covenant have been fulfilled and made obsolete by Jesus’ coming, and the establishment of the new covenant though his atoning death. The writer hence, challenges readers to hold on to their confession of Christ until the end; to go on into spiritual maturity; and not to turn back to condemnation by abandoning faith in Jesus Christ. Both Mr. Shim and Ms.Pang basically understood the general message of the book which is about redemption in Christ Jesus; Mr. Starlin, on the other hand, honestly mentioned that he was not familiar with the Book of Hebrews. Nevertheless, it was noted that none directly mentioned an understanding of Christ as both genuine God and genuine man, but only about Christ’s sacrifice and what it has accomplished. Both Mr. Shim and Ms. Pang openly professed how much impact Christ’s sacrifice has touched them and how much they appreciate this sacrifice. They both claim that no one can come to God but through Christ alone. This assignment has helped me see and understand that though access to the Bible is now unlimited, there are still many who are not aware of its contents and message. It is sad to note that to some, its contents are mere stories and that Christ to them was just a man like the rest of God’s prophets and messengers and that they still have no knowledge about What Christ can do for them. This assignment has helped me realize how most of us are still spiritually hungry and how many among us are dying spiritually without proper knowledge of the Word.

Paper On Pieper, Work, And Wonder. The World Of Work And

Paper on Pieper, Work, and Wonder The world of work and the world of wonder are two worlds that play a prominent role in the lives of humans. In that sense they are commensurable to one another, yet at the same there there is a clear distinction between how the two worlds worlds operate that make them incommensurable. The purpose of this paper is to to argue that the world of work is incommensurable with the world of wonder in certain senses, but commensurable in others. This will be done by providing evidence from Leisure, the Basis of Culture by Josef Pieper, Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, and works of Plato. To start off with, the terms being discussed in this paper should be defined, meaning the world of wonder and world of work†¦show more content†¦It instead would focus on Theoria, activity that is focused on contemplation. Therefore, it can be said the world of wonder is not focused on producing something so much as aiming for something. It is not so much as to achieve that goal so much as striving for it. Now that the world of work and the world of wonder have been defined,, it can now be argued as to why they are incommensurable in certain cases while commensurable in others. Starting with why they are incommensurable, it can be clearly deduced from the definition above that the two worlds are opposites of one another. To elaborate on that idea, according to the world of work, people work to produce goods such as food. People get food to live. But then comes the question, people live to do what? From Pieper’s viewpoint it sort of seems that people live to work. It is ironic since the world of work is supposedly where man performs activities to fulfill their common needs to live and such. With this sort of viewpoint, it appears there is no real meaning to life or work as it is endless cycle with nothing possessing independent value. That is not the case with the world of wonder. As Plato would put it, humans live to achieve excellence as humans. Aristotle would put it as human strive for goodness, which is the fulfillment of its proper function. The proper function of humans according to Aristotle would be our ability toShow MoreRelatedCaring With Poor Pain Management And Barriers Towards Proper Care3954 Words   |  16 Pages Abstract This paper focuses on a situation involving a patient with poor pain management and barriers towards proper care as well as the resolutions to an ethical dilemma in which a nurse experiences a conflict regarding a cognitively impaired patient. Question of elder abuse also became involved in regards to decisions made by family members along with the patients activated health care proxy. The areas of focus include a review of the literature, a five part analysisRead MoreResearch Papers for Eudora Welty4544 Words   |  19 Pagescritical work that has been done on it, Professor Gretlund establishes both a scholarly and a critical context upon which my speculative concerns depend. It is in the light of his study that I have written what follows, intending to bring to the support of our common concern for literature a metaphysical dimension of concern which I believe appropriate to literary criticism. Eudora Welty has understood from the beginning a responsibility to the truth of things in response to the wonder and delightRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pagesobtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks

Programs to Take Families Off the Welfare System Essay...

By making improvements to the Welfare System in America has become a way of life that has entrapped so many single and married households across the country. Statistics show that there were 108,592,000 people who are recipients of one or more means of the government benefit programs. The Census Bureau recorded by surveys over 101, 716,000 people who worked full time year around in 2011 which only allowed one member of the family to work year round. The system is meant to help low income families, however; they don’t want to be not allowed to grow by becoming more independent and have opportunities to rise above poverty. The quest to change the welfare system is to ensure the welfare and the rights of children, their parents and†¦show more content†¦The welfare reform system’s goal was to get people off the welfare system and onto the job market. The hope was to move people from dependency to self-reliance. Opposition to the new welfare reform system has oc curred. Some believe support in a welfare-to-work program might create new problems for children by adding strains to family life or by exposing children to poor substitute care arrangements for policies that design welfare-to-work programs that pursue the dual goals of economic self-sufficiency for families and healthy development of children. (http://www.nga.org/welfare/employmentretentationemployed.htm). Welfare policies aimed at improving family circumstances for both children and parents must not make the error of focusing solely on parents; if the intention is to enhance the immediate and long-term development of both generations within the family, then policies must differentiate between youth and their parents. These issues have brought about numerous debates. These debates have focused on the welfare reform system. Still in the debate are the pros and cons of this new system, focusing on the welfare of the child, the parent, the employer, and the taxpayer. Improvements to the Welfare System will prevent fraud by allowing more than one family member to work; limiting opportunities to receive a higher education; and providing opportunities to rise above poverty. First, by allowing more than one family member to work willShow MoreRelatedWelfare Policy And The American Government1162 Words   |  5 Pages Welfare Policy Lana Eliot Sociology 320 Professor Mentor March 26, 2016 When a person first hears the word welfare, they think of free money, food and lazy people. This is such a stereotyped opinion of all that the welfare system is and what it does for millions of individuals and families in the United States. To socially define welfare one could view it as a: social effort designed to promote the basic physical and material well-being of people in need† (dictionary.com). BecauseRead MoreIs Our Government Family Friendly? The United States Welfare System1654 Words   |  7 PagesThe Welfare system in the United States began around the 1930s to help those in need. It was created for the unemployed and underemployed to use in helping out with the needs of their families. This original program lasted until 1996, when the federal government stopped the federal aid to all poor and cut welfare to poor women with children. In 1996 the New Deal was created, and it created health and nutrition programs, minimum wage, subsidized housing, Aid to families with dependent childrenRead MoreThe Welfare System Is A Broken System1590 Words   |  7 Pagesgovernment currently funds 126 separate anti-poverty programs at an annual cost of $688 billion. Of these, 72 provide cash or other benefits directly to poor families† (Tanner). Welfare is a broken system that needs to be fixed because it is teaching the current generation the wrong way to live, encourages people to not work for what they need or want, and lacks accountability for how or where the money is being spent. The welfare system was originally created to help people who were temporarilyRead MoreWelfare Fraud Essay1638 Words   |  7 Pagesshould have a time limit on how much they can receive. Doing research on the assistance that is afforded to individuals, I learned how and why these programs were implemented. For instance, the WIC (Women, Infant, and Children) program was established in 1968 after a group of physicians described to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, and also the USDA that young women, often pregnant, came to their clinics with various ailments that were caused by lack of food. Those doctors wouldRead More Exemplification Essay: Welfare, A Vicious Circle1427 Words   |  6 Pagesinto the humiliation of the welfare line. For two years now, Diana has tried to get back on her feet, but with only a high school diploma, she cant find a job to support her family. Getting a college degree is her only way out, but her check isnt enough to afford daycare, so shes stuck accepting welfare.    This is not an uncommon scenario. Most people on welfare are looking for a way to rejoin the American work force; yet, societys stereotype of a welfare recipient is consistentlyRead MoreThe Reforms Of Public Benefits For Needy Families1476 Words   |  6 Pagesneedy families in the U.S. and specifically single mothers, which took place in August of 1996, was an important step since its inception with FDR in 1935. Many requirements were imposed onto public benefits eligibility, such as work and income requirement and establishing a time limit for public aid. Effects of the reform were hard to ignore as it resulted in decreasing governmental expenditure and heavy program caseloads. However, the big debate about public benefits is of which welfare discouragesRead More61% of welfare recipients are white and 33% are black. This sounds backwards, right? This is1400 Words   |  6 Pages61% of welfare recipients are white and 33% are black. This sounds backwards, right? This is because when we hear the word welfare we think of the black population (Ebony 55).Welfare is a government financial aid. Many people use it. At first, people thought the idea was amazing. Financial aid eventually started becoming a problem when people began to take advantage of the system. This subject has been and is still very controversial. The system has gone through many reforms to prevent welfare fraudRead MoreEssay on Welfare1280 Words   |  6 PagesWelfare â€Å"Welfare, it is on just about everyone’s mind, whether it is Medicare or the Aid to Families with Dependent Children, which is also called the AFDC. Some believe there is too much and others think there is too little. As the years go by, the need for welfare reform increases.†(Sara) Welfare is constantly being taken advantage of, and it needs to be reformed to solve this problem. Welfare in its current state is a tremendous drain on our economy. With reform, we can keep our economyRead More Welfare Reform - Welfare Recipients MUST take Personal Responsibility1248 Words   |  5 PagesWelfare Reform - Welfare Recipients MUST take Personal Responsibility   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Public Welfare is an important support system of the United States government. Welfare has its benefits, but the system has pitfalls. Instead of abolishing welfare as critics of the system suggest, reforms can be made to correct the problems while government, either on the state or federal level, can continue to assist the impoverished.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The term welfare is used to describe a variety of programs that provide Read MoreEssay about Welfare Reform: Promoting Independence and Self-Reliance1740 Words   |  7 PagesWelfare Reform: Promoting Independence and Self-Reliance Mary Smith gets up every day at 6 am and begins to hustle around the house. She rouses her three children from their slumber and forces them to get ready for school. Once the kids are on the bus, she hops in her car and heads off to her job at the local fast food restaurant. After working her seven hours at the restaurant, she goes to her night course at the college in town. The course she is taking will help her get her high school